Chemistry is the study of matter, its properties, composition, and structure, and the changes it undergoes.
1. Chapter 1 Introduction: Matter and Measurement Learning outcomes: Distinguish between the macroscopic world and the submicroscopic realm of atoms and molecules. Categorize matter into its different states. Differentiate among pure substances, homogeneous mixtures, and heterogeneous mixtures. Categorize the properties of pure substances. Contrast the different techniques used to separate mixtures of substances. Differentiate the different forms of energy. Use the metric system to express scientific quantities quantitatively. Differentiate between metric base units and derived units, such as volume, density, and energy. Determine the uncertainty of a given quantity in scientific calculations. Analyze calculations to determine the correct number of significant figures for the answer. Apply dimensional analysis to track the conversion from given units to desired units. • Chemistry is the study of matter, its properties, composition, and structure and the changes it undergoes. • It is central to our fundamental understanding of many science-related fields. 1
2. Atomic and Molecular Perspective Matter – Anything that has mass and occupies space. Atom – The smallest stable building block of matter. Molecule – Groups of atoms held together with a specific connectivity and shape. Composition - the types of atoms that are present in a compound and the ratio of these atoms (for example H2O, C2H6O). Structure - how atoms are connected (bonded) to each other, how far apart they are, and the shape of the molecule. Methods of Classification of Matter State of Matter - physical state is gas, liquid, or solid. Composition of Matter - element, compound, or mixture States of Matter 1) Gas (vapor) – has no fixed volume or shape, uniformly expands to fill its container, compressible, flows readily, diffusion occurs rapidly. 2) Liquid - has a distinct volume independent of its container, assumes the shape of the portion of the container it occupies, not significantly compressible, diffusion occurs but slower than a gas. 3) Solid - has both a definite shape and definite volume, not significantly compressible, diffusion occurs extremely slowly. 2
3. Elements, Compounds & Mixtures Pure Substance Matter that has a fixed composition and distinct properties. All pure substances are either elements or compounds. Elements All atoms are the same kind, elements have only one type of atom. e.g. oxygen (O2), gold (Au), silicon (Si) and diamond (C). Compounds Contains more than one type of atom, but all molecules (or repeat units) are the same, e.g. water (H2O), ethanol (C2H6O), quartz (SiO2), sodium chloride (NaCl). Mixture Have variable composition and can be separated into component parts by physical methods. Mixtures contain more than one kind of molecule, and their properties depend on the relative amount of each component present in the mixture. Homogeneous & Heterogeneous Mixtures The composition is variable for both heterogeneous and homogeneous mixtures. Heterogeneous Mixture - non-uniform. Chocolate Chip Cookie – Chocolate, dough, etc. Concrete – Cement, rocks, etc. Nachos – Chips, cheese, jalapeños, salsa, etc. Homogeneous Mixture – uniform throughout, also called a solution. Air – principle components include O2, N2 & CO2 Vodka – principle components are ethanol and water Brass – solid solution of Cu and Zn Ruby – solid solution of Al2O3 and Cr2O3 3
4. Periodic Table Relative abundances of elements in the Earth’s crust and human body. Elements are represented as symbols with one or two letters; the first is always capitalized. 4
5. Compound Elements Elements can interact with other elements to form compounds, and compounds can be decomposed into elements. Law of Constant Composition The elemental composition of a compound is always the same, which is known as the Law of Constant Composition (or Law of Definite Proportions). Example: According to the law of definite proportions, if a sample of compound A contains 12 g of sulfur and 6 g of oxygen, another sample of A that contains 50 grams of sulfur must contain ________ g oxygen. 5
6. Chemical and Physical Properties Physical Properties Some properties can be readily measured with our senses, e.g. odor and color, instruments are needed to measure other properties, such as electrical resistivity, hardness, melting point, boiling point, density, mass, volume, etc. Chemical Properties Describe the reactivity of a substance toward other substances. Examples include: Ethanol burns in air (reacts with oxygen) Sodium reacts vigorously with water, Corrosion of metal parts (rust), Trinitrotoluene (TNT) is explosive. Physical changes are changes in matter that do not change the composition of a substance. – Examples include changes of state, temperature, and volume. Chemical changes result in new substances. – Examples include reactions: combustion, oxidation, tarnishing, and decomposition. Properties of Matter • Intensive Properties: □ Independent of the amount of the substance that is present. • Density, temperature, melting point, boiling point, hardness, color, etc. • Extensive Properties: □ Dependent upon the amount of the substance present. • Mass, volume, energy, etc. 6
7. Separation of Mixtures Filtration Distillation Chromatography Energy • Energy is the capacity to do work or transfer heat. • Work is the energy transferred when a force exerted on an object causes a displacement of that object. • Heat is the energy used to cause the temperature of an object to increase. • Force is any push or pull on an object. 7
8. Fundamental Forms of Energy Kinetic energy is the energy of motion. – Its magnitude depends on the object’s mass and its velocity: KE = ½mv2 • Potential energy of an object depends on its relative position compared to other objects. • Potential energy also refers to the composition of an object, including the chemical energy stored in chemical bonds. One of the goals in chemistry is to related the energy changes in the macroscopic world to the kinetic or potential energy of substances at the molecular level. Numbers and Units in Chemistry Major role in quantifying: – Units of measurement – Quantities that are measured and calculated – Uncertainty in measurement – Significant figures – Dimensional analysis (e.g. 1 inch = 2.54 cm) Energy is a derived unit, mass times velocity squared Joule (J) = kg·m2/s2 8
9. Metric System Prefixes Example Example 1: How many grams are in 10 kg? 10 kg 1×103 g × =10×103 g 1 kg In scientific notation, 1.0x104 g. Example 2: Use appropriate metric prefixes to write the following measurement without use of exponents, 7.6×10−10 g. Approach: Use the closest prefix to the exponent (-10), choose 1 ng = 1×10−9 g. 7.6×10−10 g 1 ng × = 0.76 ng 1×10−9 g 9
10. Volume Volume is not a base unit for SI; it is a derived unit from length (m × m × m = m3). The most commonly used metric units for volume are the liter (L) and the milliliter (mL). – A liter is a cube 1 decimeter (dm) long on each side. – A milliliter (mL) is a cube 1 centimeter (cm) long on each side, also called 1 cubic centimeter (cm × cm × cm = cm3). Glassware for Measuring Volume Uncertainty in Measurements - Different measuring devices have different uses and different degrees of precision. 10
11. Temperature Scales Temperature – the “hotness and coldness” of an object. Heat flows spontaneously from an object with a higher temperature to an object with a lower temperature. Temperature • The Kelvin is the SI unit of temperature. • It is based on the properties of gases. • There are no negative Kelvin temperatures. • K = C + 273.15 Example: Express 25.00 °C in K. 11
12. Temperature •The Fahrenheit scale is not used in scientific measurements. F = 9/5(C) + 32 C = 5/9(F − 32) The ‘9/5’, ‘5/9’, and ’32’ are exact numbers and do not influence significant figures. Examples: Density mass m Example: A piece of unknown metal with a Density = d = = volume V right rectangular prism shape has a width of 3.2 cm, a length of 17.1 cm, and height of 4.0 cm. Its mass is 1.5 kg. Calculate the density of the metal in g/cm3. 12
13. Example The world’s largest gold bar in the Toi Gold Museum in Japan can be seen and touched by visitors. It has an irregular shape with dimensions about 17.9 in. by 8.9 in. by 6.7 inches, with a volume of 12.94 L. Determine the mass and weight (1 kg = 2.205 lb). Numbers in Chemistry • Exact numbers are counted or given by definition. For example, there are 12 eggs in 1 dozen and 3 feet in 1 yard. • Inexact (or measured) numbers depend on how they were determined. Scientific instruments have limitations (equipment errors) and individuals can read some instrumentation differently (human errors). Digital Reading Scale read by eye The last digit measured is considered reliable, but not exact. 13
14. Precision and Accuracy • Precision is a measure of how closely individual measurements to agree with one another. • Accuracy refers to how closely individual measurements agree with the correct “true” value. Significant Figures • The term significant figures refers to digits that were measured. • When rounding calculated numbers, we pay attention to significant figures so we do not overstate the accuracy of our answers. 14
15. Significant Figures 1. Zeros between non-zero numbers are always significant. 2. Zeros at the beginning of a number are never significant, merely indicate the position of the decimal point. 3. Zeros at the end of the number after a decimal place are significant if the number contains a decimal point. 4. Zeros at the end of a number before a decimal place are ambiguous (e.g. 23,800 g), unless a decimal point is written at the end (i.e. 23,800. g). Assume the zeros are insignificant, unless there is a decimal point. Avoid ambiguity by using scientific notation. Significant Figures How many significant figures are present in each of the measured quantities? 0.0012 108 900.0 3.0012 0.002070 4.80 10-3 4.800 10-3 15
16. Rounding* After determining the appropriate number of significant figures, round off your final answer. 1. If the first digit you drop is greater than 5, add 1 to the last digit you keep. You are rounding up. 2. If the first digit you drop is less than 5, do nothing to the digits you keep. You are rounding down. 3. If the digit you drop is 5, and there are no following digits, round down. If there are digits following the 5, round up. *You may receive a different rule #3 from your lab instructor. Significant Figures & Calculations Addition and Subtraction Line up the numbers at the decimal point and the answer cannot have more decimal places than the measurement with the fewest number of decimal places. 16
17. Addition and Subtraction • The absolute uncertainty can be no smaller than the least accurate number. • 12.04 - 10.4 1.64 1.6 • The answer should have no more decimal places than the least accurate number. Multiplication and Division The answer cannot have more significant figures than the measurement with the fewest number of significant figures. 3121 12 = 37452 = 3.7 104 # sig. digits 4 2 2 Know the number of appropriate digits throughout, round at the end. 17
18. Mixed Operations Determine accuracy in the same order as the mathematical operations, # of significant digits in blue •Retain at least one additional digit past the significant figures in combined operations, so rounding doesn’t affect results… -keep track of the proper significant figures to use at the end. 3 3 m 2.79 g 2.79 g d= = = v 8.34 mL - 7.58 mL 0.76 mL 3 3 2 d = 3.7 g/mL 2 Evaluate the expression to the correct number of significant figures. How many sig. figs. in the answer? 4.184 × 100.620 × (25.27 - 24.16) = _____ Using order of operations, evaluate subtraction first. Then multiply each number and evaluate. 4.184 × 100.620 × (1.11) = 467.3034288 (4 s.f.) (6 s.f.) (3 s.f.) 467 Multiplication uses fewest number of sig. figures. The answer should have three significant figures. Retain at least one additional digit past the significant figures in combined operations, so rounding doesn’t affect result… -keep track of the proper significant figures for the final answer. 18
19. Evaluate the expression to the correct number of significant figures. How many sig. figs. in the answer? 9.6 x 100.65 + 4.026 = 8.321 Evaluate the expression to the correct number of significant figures. How many sig. figs. in the answer? 320.75 - (6102.1 / 3.1) = Evaluate the expression to the correct number of significant figures. How many sig. figs. in the answer? (14.20000 0.7288) + (12.00536 0.0201) = 19
20. Dimensional Analysis Units are multiplied together or divided into each other along with the numerical values. • Keep track of both numerical values and units. http://www.wired.com/2010/11/1110mars -climate-observer-report/ Conversions: Two or More Factors What is the mass in g, of 1.00 gal of H2O? The density of water is 1.00 g/mL. 1 L = 1.057 qt, 1 gal = 4 qt 20
21. Conversions Involving Volume Express a volume of 1.250 L in mL and cm3 1 mL (1.250 L)× =1,250. mL 1 × 10 L 1000 mL (1.250 L)× =1,250. mL 1L 1000 cm3 (1.250 L)× =1,250. cm3 1L Express a volume of 1,250. cm3 in m3. The prefix centi is 10-2, 1 cm = 110-2 m for length. Volume involves cubed units, create a conversion: 110−2 m 110−2 m 110−2 m 110−6 m3 = 1 cm 1 cm 1 cm 1 cm3 Use the conversion to express the volume in m3: 110−6 m3 (1250. cm3 ) × = 1.250 × 10−3 m3 1 cm3 21
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